Tourist routes to Baikonur.

“There is no creator god, but there is a cosmos that produces suns, planets and living beings: there is no omnipotent god, but there is a Universe that controls the fate of all celestial bodies and their inhabitants.”

Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky.

Silk Road and Baikonur Cosmodrome.

Work on the International Space Station (ISS, in English literature ISS - International Space Station) began in 1993. By this time, Russia had more than 25 years of experience in operating the Salyut and Mir orbital stations, and had unique experience in conducting long-term flights ( up to 438 days of continuous human stay in orbit), as well as a variety of space systems (Mir orbital station, manned and cargo transport ships of the Soyuz and Progress types) and developed infrastructure to support their flights.
But by 1991, Russia found itself in a state of severe economic crisis and could no longer maintain funding for astronautics at the previous level. At the same time and, in general, for the same reason (the end of the Cold War), the creators of the Freedom orbital station (USA) found themselves in a difficult financial situation.
Therefore, a proposal arose to combine the efforts of Russia and the United States in implementing manned programs. On March 15, 1993, Director General of the Russian Space Agency (RSA) Yu.N. Koptev and General Designer of the Research and Production Association (NPO) Energia Yu.P. Semenov approached NASA head D. Goldin with a proposal to create the ISS. On September 2, 1993, Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation V.S. Chernomyrdin and US Vice President A. Gore signed a “Joint Statement on Cooperation in Space,” which provided for the creation of the ISS.
In its development, RSA and NASA signed a “Detailed Work Plan for the International Space Station” on November 1, 1993. In June 1994, a contract “On supplies and services for the Mir stations and the ISS” was signed between NASA and RKA.
As a result of further negotiations, it was determined that in addition to Russia (RKA) and the USA (NASA), Canada (CSA), Japan (NASDA) and European Cooperation countries (ESA) are participating in the creation of the station, a total of 16 countries, and that the station will consist of 2 integrated segments (Russian and American) and gradually assembled in orbit from separate modules.
The main work should be completed by 2003, the total mass of the station by this time will exceed 450 tons. Delivery of cargo and crews into orbit is carried out by Russian Proton and Soyuz launch vehicles, as well as by American reusable spacecraft such as the Space Shuttle.
The lead organization for the creation of the Russian segment and its integration with the American segment is the Rocket and Space Corporation (RSC) Energia named after S.P. Queen, for the American segment - Boeing.
Technical coordination of work on the Russian segment of the ISS is carried out by the Council of Chief Designers under the leadership of the President and General Designer of RSC Energia, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences Yu.P. Semenov.
Management of the preparation and launch of elements of the Russian segment of the ISS is carried out by the Interstate Commission for Flight Support and Operation of Orbital Manned Complexes. Participating in the manufacture of elements of the Russian segment are: RSC Energia Experimental Mechanical Engineering Plant named after. S.P. Korolev and the Rocket and Space Plant of the State Research and Production Space Center named after M.V. Khrunichev, as well as GNP RKTs TsSKB-Progress, Design Bureau of General Mechanical Engineering, RNII of Space Instrumentation, Scientific Research Institute of Precision Instruments, RGNII TsPK im. Yu.A. Gagarin, Russian Academy of Sciences, organization “Agat”, etc. (about 200 organizations in total).
General characteristics of Russian segment of the international space station:
Orbit altitude: 350 – 460 kilometers.
Orbital inclination: 51.6 degrees.
Deployment period: 1998 0 2003.
Duration of operation, starting from the launch of the first element: 15 years.

Stages of construction of the international space station.

The deployment of the ISS began with the launch on November 20, 1998, using a Proton rocket, of the Zarya functional cargo unit (FGB), built in Russia. The deployment of the ISS began on November 20, 1998, with the launch of the station's first module, the Zarya functional cargo block, on a Russian Proton launch vehicle.
In July 2000 The ISS was replenished with one more unit - the Russian service module Zvezda. After this, the ISS became ready to receive crews for permanent work. In September 2001, the Pirs docking compartment was delivered into orbit, which can be used as an airlock compartment for spacewalks for two crew members and an additional port for docking with the ISS of manned spacecraft of the Soyuz TM type and transport spacecraft of the Progress-M type ".
In the future, to conduct research and experiments on board the Russian segment of the ISS, it is planned to create, deploy and operate research modules, a scientific and energy platform and other units. The total mass of scientific equipment on board the Russian segment of the ISS will be about 26 tons.
Taking into account the operating experience of the Mir complex, a program of experiments on the Russian segment of the ISS was developed. New samples of scientific equipment obtained during ground research are recommended for testing in space flight conditions on the ISS.
Based on an analysis of the scientific and technical results obtained on Mir, proposals were formed for a long-term research program on the ISS. On December 5, 1998, the space shuttle Endeavor (flight number STS-88, commander - R. Kabana, crew - Russian cosmonaut S. Krikalev) was launched with the American docking module NODE-1 (Unity) on board.
On December 7, Endeavor moored to the FGB, moved the NODE-1 module with a manipulator and docked it. The crew of the Endeavor ship carried out installation of communications equipment and repair work at the FGB (inside and outside).
Undocking took place on December 13, and landing on December 15. On May 27, 1999, the shuttle Discovery (STS-96) launched and docked with the ISS on May 29. The crew transferred cargo to the station, performed technical work, installed a cargo boom operator’s station and an adapter for its fastening on the transition module. June 4 – undocking, June 6 – landing.
On May 18, 2000, the shuttle Discovery (STS-101) launched and docked with the ISS on May 21. The crew carried out repair work on the FGB and installed a cargo boom and handrails on the outer surface of the station.
The shuttle engine corrected (raised) the ISS orbit. May 27 – undocking, May 29 – landing.
In July 26, 2000, the Zvezda service module was docked with the Zarya - Unity modules. Start of operation in orbit of the Zvezda – Zarya – Unity complex with a total mass of 52.5 tons.
From the moment (November 2, 2000) of the Soyuz TM-31 spacecraft docking with the ISS with the ISS-1 crew on board (V. Shepherd - expedition commander, Yu. Gidzenko - pilot, S. Krikalev - flight engineer), the stage of operation of the station in manned space began mode and conducting scientific and technical research on it.

Scientific and technical experiments on the International Space Station.

The formation of a scientific research program on the Russian Segment (RS) of the ISS began in 1995 after the announcement of a competition among scientific institutions, industrial organizations and higher educational institutions.
406 applications were received from more than 80 organizations in 11 main research areas. In 1999, taking into account the technical study carried out by RSC Energia specialists on the feasibility of the received applications, a “Long-term program of scientific and applied research and experiments planned on the ISS RS” was developed, approved by the General Director of the Russian Aviation and Space Agency Yu.N. Koptev and President of the Russian Academy of Sciences Yu.S. Osipov.

Main scientific and technical tasks of International Space Station: 

– studying the Earth from space;
– study of physical and biological processes under conditions of weightlessness and controlled gravity;
– astrophysical observations, in particular, the station will have a large complex of solar telescopes;
– testing new materials and devices for work in space;
– development of technology for assembling large systems in orbit, including using robots;
– testing of new pharmaceutical technologies and pilot production of new drugs in microgravity conditions;
– pilot production of semiconductor materials.

Authority and photos by
Encyclopedia Around the World. International Space Station. Vladimir Surdin.
https://www.krugosvet.ru/enc/nauka_i_tehnika/aviaciya_i_kosmonavtika/MEZHDUNARODNAYA_KOSMICHESKAYA_STANTSIYA.html